GLOSSARY

Abstract Reasoning (myślenie abstrakcyjne) The ability to analyze and solve problems by thinking conceptually, identifying patterns, and making logical connections between ideas without relying on physical or concrete references.

Acceptance (akceptacja) A positive acknowledgment of a situation, person, or reality, often involving emotional adjustment and letting go of resistance or denial.

Acquaintance (znajomy, znajomość) A person one knows casually or socially, but who is not a close friend. Acquaintances are part of a broader social network.

Acquisition (nabywanie, zdobywanie) The process of gaining or obtaining something, such as knowledge, skills, or possessions, through learning, practice, or effort. In psychology, it refers to the initial stage of learning or conditioning.

Acronym (akronim, skrótowiec) A word formed from the initial letters of a phrase or group of words, often used to simplify long names or terms. Examples include NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).

Adaptable (elastyczny, łatwo przystosowujący się) Having the ability to adjust easily to new circumstances, environments, or challenges, demonstrating flexibility in thought or behavior.

Admiration (podziw)A feeling of deep respect or approval for someone’s qualities, achievements, or actions, inspiring motivation or aspiration.

Affiliations (powiązania, przynależność) Relationships or formal connections a person has with groups, organizations, or institutions that reflect their roles, beliefs, or areas of interest and often contribute to their social identity.

Aggressiveness (agresywność) A behavioral tendency to act in a forceful or confrontational manner, often aimed at asserting dominance or achieving goals.

Agreeable (ugodowy, sympatyczny) A personality trait characterized by being cooperative, empathetic, and considerate toward others. Agreeable people are often good at building harmonious relationships.

Agreeableness (ugodowość) A person’s tendency to be cooperative, compassionate, and trusting in social situations. People high in this trait value harmony and are often empathetic and considerate of others’ needs.

Amazement (zdumienie) A feeling of wonder or astonishment, often in response to something surprising, impressive, or beyond expectations.

Anger (złość) A strong emotional reaction to perceived injustice, frustration, or provocation, often accompanied by physiological changes like increased heart rate or tension, driving assertive or aggressive responses.

Annoyance (poirytowanie) A mild form of irritation or displeasure caused by inconveniences, repetitive behaviors, or minor frustrations.

Anticipation (oczekiwanie) A forward-looking emotion involving excitement, anxiety, or preparation for a future event or outcome, often tied to hopes or fears.

Anxiety (lęk, niepokój) A feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, often about an imminent event or uncertain outcome.

Apprehension (obawa) A subtle but persistent feeling of unease, worry, or anxiety about an uncertain future or anticipated event.

Aptitude (zdolność) A natural ability or skill to learn or perform tasks, often shown early in life and related to specific talents like music, math, or language.

Articulate (verb) (wyrażać, artykułować) To express thoughts, ideas, or feelings clearly and effectively in speech or writing. It can also refer to pronouncing words distinctly.

Assertive (asertywny) Assertive describes a communication style or behavior characterized by confidently expressing one’s needs, opinions, or rights while respecting those of others. It strikes a balance between passivity and aggression.

Attachment Theory (teoria przywiązania) A theory developed by John Bowlby that explores the bonds between infants and their caregivers and their impact on emotional and social development.

Automatic behaviors (automatyzmy, czynności zautomatyzowane) Actions performed without conscious thought or intention, often as a result of habit or routine. They enable efficiency but can sometimes occur in inappropriate or harmful contexts.Awe (zachwyt) A profound emotional response to something vast, sublime, or powerful, often blending admiration and fear.

Background (tło, pochodzenie, doświadczenie) A person’s past experiences, upbringing, education, or environment that shape their perspective and abilities; it can also refer to the contextual details that provide understanding of an event or situation.

Basal Ganglia (jądra podstawne mózgu) A group of structures in the brain involved in controlling voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, habit formation, and emotional processing, forming part of the brain’s deep neural networks.

Behavioural Therapy (terapia behawioralna) A type of therapy that focuses on changing maladaptive behaviors through conditioning techniques such as reinforcement and punishment.

Behaviourism (behawioryzm) A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviours and their relationship with environmental stimuli, emphasizing learning through conditioning.

Bias (uprzedzenie; stronniczość) A tendency to prefer one thing over another, often unfairly. Bias can influence decisions and judgments, sometimes without the person being fully aware of it.

Boredom (nuda) A state of disinterest or dissatisfaction due to a lack of stimulation, variety, or challenge, often leading to restlessness.

Capacity (zdolność lub pojemność) The ability or potential to contain, absorb, or perform something; it can refer to physical limits, mental abilities, or the maximum amount a system can handle.

Cautious (ostrożny) Being careful and avoiding unnecessary risks or dangers, often by thinking through actions and potential consequences before making decisions.

Character (charakter) The combination of mental, emotional, and moral qualities unique to an individual that influence their behavior and attitudes; it can also refer to a defining feature of a place, object, or narrative.

Classical Conditioning (warunkowanie klasyczne) A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a conditioned response, as demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.

Cognitive Abilities (zdolności poznawcze) Mental skills that involve learning, thinking, memory, problem-solving, and reasoning. These abilities allow people to acquire knowledge and adapt to their environment.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) (terapia poznawczo-behawioralna) A therapeutic approach that combines cognitive and behavioural techniques to address and change negative thought patterns and behaviours.

Cognitive Distortion (zniekształcenie poznawcze) A way of thinking that twists reality in a negative or inaccurate way, often leading to false beliefs, stress, or unhelpful emotions.

Cognitive Load (obciążenie poznawcze) The amount of mental effort required to process information and complete a task. High cognitive load occurs when the task is complex, or there is a lot of information to process simultaneously.

Cognitive Restructuring (restrukturyzacja poznawcza) Cognitive restructuring is a therapeutic technique that helps individuals identify and challenge negative thought patterns or distortions. It replaces unhelpful beliefs with more balanced and realistic ones, improving emotional well-being.

Coherent (spójny) Logical, consistent, and well-organized, with each part fitting together to form a clear and comprehensible whole; often used to describe speech, writing, or thought processes.

Collaborative (współpracujący, zespołowy) Involving two or more people working together towards a shared goal, often characterized by cooperation, mutual respect, and teamwork.

Compassionate (współczujący) Showing deep empathy and concern for the suffering or misfortunes of others, often accompanied by a desire to help or alleviate their pain.

Competitive (konkurencyjny, rywalizujący) A trait or mindset focused on achieving success in relation to others, often striving to outperform peers in various activities or contexts.

Concentric (koncentryczny)Refers to objects or layers sharing a common center, often symbolizing unity or balance, such as ripples in water or the structure of an onion.

Conditioned Response (odruch warunkowy, reakcja warunkowa) A learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a conditioned reflex.

Conditioning (warunkowanie) A learning process in which an organism responds to stimuli in a way that leads to a specific outcome, including classical and operant conditioning.

Conscientiousness (sumienność) The tendency to be organized, reliable, and goal-oriented. Individuals high in this trait are often disciplined, responsible, and mindful of details, making them effective in managing tasks and obligations.

Consistent (spójny, konsekwentny) Acting or behaving in the same way over time, showing reliability, stability, or uniformity in decisions, actions, or beliefs.

Consolidate (verb) (utrwalać, konsolidować) To make something stronger, more solid, or unified, often by combining elements or reinforcing them. In learning, it refers to strengthening memories through repeated review and practice.

Construct Validity (trafność konstruktu) Refers to how well a test or measurement tool accurately represents the concept it is intended to assess, ensuring that it measures what it claims to measure.

Contempt (pogarda) A feeling of disdain or superiority, often toward something or someone perceived as unworthy or inferior.

Convention (konwencja) A standard, rule, or widely accepted practice that governs behavior, communication, or activities, often developed within a specific group, culture, or profession to maintain order and mutual understanding.

Convert (verb) (przekształcić, konwertować) To change or transform something from one form, system, or purpose to another, such as converting units of measurement, currencies, or beliefs.

Convey (verb) (przekazać) To communicate or express thoughts, emotions, ideas, or information clearly and effectively through spoken or written words, gestures, or visual means, ensuring the intended meaning is understood by others.

Coping (with something) (radzenie sobie z czymś) Managing or dealing with stress, problems, or difficult situations.

Core emotions (podstawowe emocje) Universal and instinctive emotions, such as joy, sadness, anger, and fear, that are biologically hardwired and foundational to understanding and expressing more complex emotional states.

Cue (sygnał, wskazówka) A signal, stimulus, or reminder that triggers a specific response, thought, or action, such as a word, sound, or image prompting memory recall or behavior.

Deductive Reasoning (rozumowanie dedukcyjne) A logical process where conclusions are drawn from general rules or principles to solve specific problems or make decisions. It moves from broad concepts to detailed applications.

Depression (depresja) A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest or pleasure in daily activities.

Despair (rozpacz) A profound feeling of hopelessness and defeat, often accompanied by a loss of motivation or belief in positive outcomes.

Dexterity (zręczność, sprawność) Skill and precision in performing tasks, especially those requiring fine motor skills, such as handling tools, writing, or playing musical instruments. It involves coordination and control of movements.

Dimension (wymiar) A measurable aspect of something, such as length, width, height, or a specific feature. In abstract terms, it can refer to different perspectives or factors in a concept.

Disagreeable (nieugodowy) A personality trait associated with being less cooperative or empathetic, often resulting in conflict or difficulty in maintaining positive social interactions.

Disappointment (rozczarowanie) A feeling of sadness or dissatisfaction when expectations or hopes are not met, often tied to unmet goals or behaviors.

Disgust (wstręt) A strong sense of aversion, revulsion, or moral disapproval, often triggered by offensive smells, sights, or behaviors, aimed at protecting against harm or contamination.

Disposition (usposobienie, skłonność) A person’s inherent qualities of mind and character, such as their temperament, mood, or tendencies toward particular behaviors.

Disproportionate (nieproporcjonalny) Excessive or unbalanced in relation to something else, often suggesting an unfair or exaggerated comparison.

Dissociation (dysocjacja) A psychological process where a person detaches from thoughts, emotions, or reality, often as a way to cope with trauma or stress. It may create a sense of separation from oneself or the environment.

Distraction (rozproszenie)A state of being unable to focus due to competing thoughts, stimuli, or emotions, often leading to reduced productivity or clarity.

Drive (verb) (napędzać) To motivate or propel someone to take action or pursue goals with energy and determination.

DSM-5 (Diagnostyczny i Statystyczny Podręcznik Zaburzeń Psychicznych, wyd. 5, klasyfikacja zaburzeń psychicznych) The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, used by clinicians to diagnose mental health conditions.

Ecstasy (ekstaza)An overwhelming feeling of intense joy or pleasure, often associated with euphoric experiences or moments of deep connection or achievement.

Emotional Fluctuations (wahania emocjonalne) Frequent or noticeable changes in mood or emotional state, often occurring over short periods of time.

Emotional response (reakcja emocjonalna) A complex reaction involving feelings, thoughts, and physical changes triggered by external events or internal experiences, reflecting how individuals interpret and adapt to situations.

Empathy (empatia) The ability to understand and share the feelings of another person, often used in therapeutic settings to build rapport and understanding.

Encode (kodować) To convert information into a specific format, often for storage or communication, such as transforming ideas into words or encoding sensory input into a form the brain can store as memory.

Encompass (obejmować) To include or cover a wide range of ideas, topics, or things. It implies surrounding or containing something completely within its scope.

Evoke (verb) (wywoływać) To bring an emotion, memory, or image to mind, often through sensory triggers like sounds, smells, or words, creating a vivid mental experience.

Explicit (wyraźny, jednoznaczny) Clearly stated or expressed, leaving no room for doubt or interpretation, often used to describe instructions, rules, or information presented in a direct and unambiguous way.

Extroversion (ekstrawersja) A personality trait reflecting sociability, energy, and enthusiasm. Extroverted individuals enjoy social interactions, seek stimulation from external environments, and often feel energized by engaging with others. Extrovert (ekstrawertyk) A person who is outgoing, enjoys socializing, and gains energy from interacting with others. Extroverts often seek stimulation in group settings and thrive in active environments.

Fatigue (znużenie, zmęczenie) A state of severe tiredness or exhaustion, both mental and physical, resulting from prolonged effort, stress, or illness, and often requiring rest or recovery.

Fear (strach)A powerful emotional and physical response to perceived threats or dangers, activating survival mechanisms like heightened awareness or fight-or-flight reactions.

Flynn Effect (efekt Flynna) The observed phenomenon of a steady increase in average intelligence test scores over the past decades, attributed to factors like better education and improved living conditions.

Foster (verb) (wspierać, pielęgnować, rozwijać) To encourage the growth, development, or nurturing of something, such as skills, relationships, or ideas, often by providing support, care, or resources.

Free Association (wolne skojarzenia) A psychodynamic technique where individuals express their thoughts without censorship to uncover unconscious material.

Frustration (frustracja) A feeling of annoyance or anger resulting from obstacles or unmet goals, often leading to a sense of helplessness or irritation.

Get along with (verb) (dogadywać się z kimś) To have a harmonious or friendly relationship with someone, characterized by ease of communication and mutual respect or understanding.

Gradual (stopniowy) Occurring in small, progressive steps over time, rather than happening abruptly or all at once.

Grasp (verb) (chwytać; zrozumieć)To firmly hold something with your hands or, in a mental sense, to fully understand an idea, concept, or situation, often after effort or difficulty.

Grief (żal, głęboki smutek, żałoba)Deep and profound sorrow, often following the loss of a loved one or something deeply valued, encompassing a range of emotional and physical reactions.

Grit (determinacja, wytrwałość) A combination of passion and perseverance for long-term goals, characterized by determination, hard work, and the ability to overcome obstacles.

Group dynamics (dynamika grupy) The patterns of interaction and behavior between members of a group, influencing how the group functions.

Guilt (wina, poczucie winy)A self-conscious emotion that arises when a person believes they have violated moral or ethical standards, often motivating corrective behavior.

Heightened (spotęgowany) Describes an intensified state of emotions, awareness, or physical sensations, often caused by stress, excitement, or focus, enhancing perception or reaction to stimuli.

Heritage (dziedzictwo) The cultural traditions, values, artifacts, and legacies passed down through generations within a community, society, or family, which shape collective identity and historical continuity.

Hierarchical Needs (hierarchia potrzeb) A concept introduced by Abraham Maslow, describing a hierarchy of human needs from basic physiological requirements to self-actualization.

Humanistic Psychology (psychologia humanistyczna) An approach that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of individuals, pioneered by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.Hypnosis (hipnoza) A trance-like state of heightened focus and suggestibility used therapeutically to address various psychological issues, such as pain or anxiety.

Implicit (ukryty, domyślny)  Implied or understood without being directly stated, often relying on context or shared knowledge to convey meaning or expectations.

Impulse Control (kontrola impulsów) The ability to resist immediate temptations or urges in favor of long-term goals, often studied in relation to disorders like ADHD.

Inexplicable (niewytłumaczalny) Impossible to understand, explain, or justify, often because it lacks a clear cause or reason. It describes events or situations that defy logic or expectations.

Ingrained (in sth) (zakorzeniony w kimś, czymś) Deeply established and difficult to change, often referring to beliefs, habits, or attitudes that are part of a person’s personality or culture. This can result from long-term repetition or strong influence.

Insight (wgląd)A sudden, clear understanding of a complex situation or problem, often gained through reflection or learning.

Instinctual drive (instynktowny popęd) A natural and automatic urge or behavior that arises from biological instincts, such as the desire to eat, reproduce, or protect oneself. These drives often operate without conscious thought.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) (iloraz inteligencji) A score derived from standardized tests designed to measure a person’s intellectual abilities in relation to others of the same age group.

Interest (zainteresowanie) A feeling of curiosity, enthusiasm, or engagement with a subject, person, or activity, often motivating further exploration or learning.

Interplay (wzajemne oddziaływanie) The way two or more things interact and influence each other, often resulting in a combined effect that is different from their individual impacts.

Interval (przerwa, odstęp) A period of time between two events or activities. In learning, it refers to the spacing between study sessions to enhance retention and memory consolidation.

Introvert (introwertyk) A person who tends to focus inward, preferring solitude or small, meaningful interactions over large social gatherings. Introverts recharge through reflection and quieter activities.

Irritability (drażliwość, irytacja) A heightened sensitivity to stimuli or events, often leading to quick feelings of annoyance, frustration, or anger, sometimes due to stress or other underlying factors.

Joy (radość) A deep and enduring feeling of happiness or contentment, often arising from positive experiences, achievements, or meaningful relationships.

Jungian Psychology (psychologia jungowska) A psychological approach developed by Carl Jung that emphasizes the role of the collective unconscious and archetypes in shaping personality and behavior.

Learning Theory (teoria uczenia się) The study of how people acquire, process, and retain knowledge and skills through experience, including theories like classical and operant conditioning.

Loathing (odraza)A strong feeling of disgust or intense dislike, often directed at people, actions, or situations perceived as deeply offensive.

Love (miłość) A deep, complex emotional bond encompassing affection, care, and connection, often central to human relationships.

Memorization (zapamiętywanie) The process of learning and storing information in memory through repetition, association, or other techniques, enabling retrieval and recall when needed.

Memory Trace (ślad pamięciowy) The lasting physical or chemical change in the brain created by an experience, serving as the neural representation of a memory that can be strengthened or weakened over time.

Mental Age (wiek umysłowy) A measure of intellectual development, comparing a person’s abilities to the average abilities of people in a specific age group.

Metalinguistic awareness (świadomość metajęzykowa) The ability to think about and analyze language as an abstract system, understanding its structure, rules, and how it works beyond just using it for communication.

Mindfulness (uważność) A practice involving focused attention on the present moment and acceptance of thoughts and feelings without judgment, often used in therapeutic contexts.

Mood Swings (huśtawki nastrojów) Sudden and dramatic shifts in a person’s emotional state, ranging from happiness to sadness or irritability, often triggered by external events or internal changes.

Multifaceted (wieloaspektowy) Having many different aspects or features, often describing something complex, such as a personality, an idea, or an issue that involves various interconnected elements.

Multiple Intelligences (inteligencje wielorakie) A theory that intelligence is not a single ability but consists of several types, such as linguistic, spatial, musical, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, and bodily-kinesthetic skills.

Neural Connections (połączenia nerwowe) Links between neurons in the brain that transmit signals and enable communication. They are essential for processing information, learning, memory, and overall brain function.

Neuroticism (neurotyczność) A personality trait characterized by emotional instability, sensitivity to stress, and frequent experiences of anxiety, sadness, or irritability. High levels can lead to difficulty managing negative emotions.

Normative Group (grupa normatywna) A group of people used as a standard for comparison when evaluating individual traits or abilities, such as in psychological or educational assessments.Nutrition (odżywianie) The process of providing or obtaining food and nutrients necessary for health and growth. Good nutrition involves a balanced diet with proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals.

Open-ended questions (pytania otwarte) Questions designed to encourage detailed, thoughtful responses by allowing for broad and unrestricted answers, rather than simple yes/no replies.

Openness to Experience (otwartość na doświadczenia) A personality trait associated with creativity, curiosity, and a willingness to explore new ideas, experiences, and perspectives. People high in this trait often enjoy novelty and intellectual pursuits.  

Operant Conditioning (warunkowanie instrumentalne) A type of learning where behaviors are shaped by their consequences, including positive and negative reinforcement or punishment, as described by B.F. Skinner.

Optimism (optymizm)A positive outlook on life or future events, characterized by hope and the belief that good outcomes are likely.

Overlap (verb) (nakładać się, pokrywać się) To happen or exist at the same time or in the same space as something else, either partially or completely. It often involves two things sharing common features or responsibilities.

Overwhelmed (przytłoczony) Feeling completely overcome by emotions, tasks, or stress, often to the point of being unable to cope.

Pattern (wzór) A repeated or predictable arrangement of elements, such as shapes, designs, or behaviors. It can also refer to consistent ways in which events or actions occur over time.

Pensiveness (zaduma) A reflective or contemplative state of mind, often accompanied by a touch of sadness or introspection.

Perceptual (percepcyjny) Related to the ability to use the senses to recognize and interpret information, such as identifying patterns or shapes in the environment.

Persistence (wytrwałość, upór) The ability to continue working toward a goal or completing a task despite difficulties, challenges, or setbacks. It reflects determination and resilience in achieving success.

Personality Disorders (zaburzenia osobowości) A group of mental health disorders characterized by enduring patterns of behavior and inner experience that deviate markedly from cultural expectations.

Personality Traits (cechy osobowości) Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour and thought patterns, such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Persuasion (perswazja) The process of influencing someone’s beliefs, attitudes, or actions by presenting logical arguments, credible evidence, or emotional appeals, often aiming to change their perspective or behavior.

Pitch (ton dźwięku lub prezentacja) Refers to the perceived frequency of a sound, which determines whether it is high or low. It can also mean presenting an idea or proposal to persuade someone.

Pride (duma) A feeling of satisfaction and self-worth that comes from achieving something valued or being associated with something admired by oneself or others.

Priming (torowanie, poprzedzanie) Priming is a psychological phenomenon in which exposure to a stimulus influences a person’s response to a subsequent stimulus, often unconsciously, by activating related memories or concepts.

Processing Speed (szybkość przetwarzania) The rate at which a person can perceive, interpret, and respond to information, such as solving puzzles or making decisions quickly.

Projection (projekcja) A defence mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

Prone (to sth) (podatny na coś, skłonny do czegoś) Having a natural tendency or likelihood to experience or do something, often negative, such as being prone to illness, mistakes, or certain behaviors.

Psychoanalysis (psychoanaliza) A therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that explores unconscious processes and early childhood experiences to understand and treat psychological disorders.

Psychodynamic Theory (teoria psychodynamiczna) A theory emphasizing the influence of unconscious processes and early experiences on behavior and personality.

Punishment (kara) Punishment is a consequence given after a behavior that decreases the likelihood of that behavior happening again. It can be positive (adding something unpleasant) or negative (removing something desirable).

Rage (wściekłość) Extreme and uncontrollable anger, often leading to aggressive outbursts or irrational behavior.

Reassure (verb) (uspokajać, upewniać) To comfort or restore confidence in someone, often by addressing fears, concerns, or doubts.

Rehearsal (próba, powtarzanie) The process of practicing or repeating something, such as information, skills, or performances, to improve recall or proficiency. It is crucial in memory formation and skill development.

Reinforce (verb) (wzmacniać, utrwalać) To strengthen or support something, such as a behavior, belief, or memory, often by providing rewards or positive feedback in learning or behavioral conditioning.

Remorse (skrucha) Deep regret or guilt over past actions, often involving a strong desire to make amends.

Repressed (stłumiony) Refers to thoughts, feelings, or memories that are pushed out of conscious awareness, often due to emotional pain or discomfort. Repression is usually unconscious and acts as a psychological defense mechanism.

Resilience (odporność psychiczna) The ability to recover from stress, challenges, or setbacks and continue functioning effectively. It involves emotional strength, adaptability, and problem-solving skills.

Retain (verb) (zachować, utrzymać) To keep or preserve information, skills, or memories over time, often through regular practice or effective learning strategies, ensuring they remain accessible for future use.

Retrieve (verb) (odzyskać, przywoływać) To access or recall information that has been stored, such as finding memories from long-term storage in the brain or recovering data from a storage device.

Reward (nagroda) A positive consequence or incentive given after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. It can include praise, material benefits, or other forms of encouragement.

Sadness (smutek)A profound feeling of sorrow or unhappiness, often arising from loss, disappointment, or empathizing with others’ pain, affecting both mood and energy levels.

Self-awareness (samoświadomość) The ability to recognize and understand one’s own thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and their effects on others, enabling reflection and personal growth.

Self-esteem (poczucie własnej wartości) An individual’s overall sense of self-worth or value, which can influence motivation, behaviour, and mental health.

Sense of Belonging (poczucie przynależności) The psychological feeling of being connected, accepted, and valued within a group or community, often fostering emotional security, identity, and mutual support among its members.

Sentence Parsing (analiza składniowa zdania) The process of breaking down and analyzing the grammatical structure of a sentence to understand its meaning, including identifying its components such as nouns, verbs, and phrases.

Serenity (pogoda ducha, spokój) A state of calmness, peace, and clarity, free from stress or agitation, often linked to mindfulness or relaxation.

Setback (niepowodzenie lub komplikacja) A setback is an unexpected obstacle or difficulty that delays or hinders progress toward a goal. It can be temporary and often requires adjustment to plans.

Shame (wstyd) A painful emotion caused by a sense of personal failure or the perception of being judged negatively by others.

Spaced Repetition (powtórki robione w odstępach czasowych) A learning technique that involves reviewing material at increasing intervals over time to reinforce memory and improve long-term retention of information.

Spectrum (spektrum, zakres) A range or continuum of something, such as colors, opinions, or abilities, spanning from one extreme to another without distinct boundaries.

Spontaneous (spontaniczny) Acting or responding without prior planning, often driven by immediate feelings, instincts, or impulses, and usually free from external constraints or expectations.

Steady (stabilny, stały) Firm, stable, and not prone to sudden changes or fluctuations, often describing consistent behavior, emotional balance, or reliable performance over time.

Stigma (piętno) A mark of disgrace or social disapproval associated with a particular characteristic, condition, or behavior.

Stress (stres) A psychological and physiological response to perceived threats or challenges, affecting an individual’s well-being and functioning.

Struggle (verb) (zmagać się) To face difficulties or make a great effort to achieve or overcome something, often involving physical, mental, or emotional challenges.

Submission (uległość) A state of yielding to authority, control, or influence, often willingly but sometimes reluctantly, depending on context.

Surprise (zaskoczenie)An emotion felt when encountering something unexpected, which can range from mild curiosity to shock, and often triggers a strong physical reaction, like a gasp.

Terror (przerażenie)An intense and paralyzing fear, usually tied to a perceived or immediate danger, often causing panic or an urgent need to escape.

Therapeutic Alliance (przymierze terapeutyczne) The collaborative and trusting relationship between a therapist and client, crucial for effective therapy and positive treatment outcomes.

Threatening (zagrażający)A state or action perceived as posing harm, danger, or intimidation, often evoking fear or a defensive response.

Trait Theory (teoria cech) A theory that focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality traits, which are consistent patterns of behavior and thought.

Trigger (verb) (wywoływać, powodować) To cause an immediate reaction, event, or process, often as a result of a specific stimulus or situation, such as triggering an emotional response or memory.

Trust (zaufanie) A firm belief in someone’s reliability, honesty, or intentions, essential for building strong relationships and fostering emotional safety.

Unconditional Positive Regard (bezwarunkowa pozytywna akceptacja) A concept introduced by Carl Rogers referring to accepting and valuing a person without judgment, fostering self-acceptance and growth.

Unconscious Mind (nieświadomy umysł) A concept from psychoanalytic theory referring to the part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires not accessible to conscious awareness but influencing behaviour.

Underpin (verb) (podpierać, wspierać) To provide support, strength, or a foundation for something, often referring to the principles, facts, or structures that form the basis of an argument, system, or physical object.

Unresolved (nierozwiązany) A state where a problem, situation, or feeling has not been dealt with or clarified. It implies that uncertainty or tension remains and continues to affect other areas of life.

Validate (verb) (potwierdzić, usprawiedliwić)To confirm or recognize the legitimacy or value of someone’s feelings, actions, or experiences, offering reassurance and support.

Vast (ogromny, rozległy) Extremely large in size, amount, or extent, often used to describe physical spaces, quantities, or abstract concepts like knowledge or opportunities.

Vigilance (czujność) A heightened state of awareness or caution, often in response to perceived threats or the need to ensure safety or success.

Wary (of sby/sth) (czujny, ostrożny w stosunku do kogoś/czegoś) Feeling or showing caution about something or someone, often due to uncertainty or suspicion based on past experiences or potential risks.

Working Memory (pamięć operacyjna, pamięć robocza) A cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for tasks such as learning and problem-solving (e.g. solving math problems or remembering a phone number temporarily).