GLOSSARY

Alveoli (singular: Alveolus) (pęcherzyki płucne) Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

Anus (odbyt) The opening through which waste is excreted from the body.

Arteries (singular: Artery) (tętnica) Blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to the body.

Atria (singular: Atrium) (przedsionki) The upper chamber of the heart that receives blood returning from the body or lungs.

Autonomic nervous system (autonomiczny / wegetatywny układ nerwowy) The part of the nervous system that controls involuntary actions, such as heart rate, digestion, the widening or narrowing of blood vessels.

Axon (Akson) The long projection of a neuron that transmits signals to other cells.

Balance disorders (zaburzenia równowagi) Conditions that affect a person’s ability to maintain stability while standing or moving. They may cause dizziness, vertigo, or a sense of spinning and often stem from issues in the inner ear.

Ball-and-socket joints (stawy kuliste) Joints allowing rotational movement, like the shoulder and hip.

Bile (żółć) A digestive fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder (pęcherzyk żółciowy) that helps break down fats.

Bladder (pęcherz moczowy) The organ that stores urine until it is excreted.

Bloodstream (krwiobieg) The flow of blood through the body’s circulatory system, carrying nutrients, oxygen, and waste products.

Bolus (kęs) A small, rounded mass of chewed food ready to be swallowed.

Bronchi (singular: bronchus) (oskrzela) The main air passages that lead from the trachea into the lungs.

Bronchioles (singular: bronchiole) (oskrzeliki) The smaller branches of the bronchi that carry air deeper into the lungs.

Bulbourethral glands (gruczoły opuszkowo-cewkowe) Glands that produce a pre-ejaculate fluid to lubricate the urethra.

Calcium (wapń) A mineral occurring in animal and human body as a component of bone, skeletal mass, shell, etc., and as a necessary element in nerve conduction, heartbeat, muscle contraction, and many other physiological functions. Symbol: Ca.

Capillaries (naczynia włosowate) Small blood vessels that connect arteries and veins, facilitating gas and nutrient exchange.

Carbohydrates (węglowodany) A group of nutrients that provide energy, found in foods like bread and pasta.

Carbon dioxide (dwutlenek węgla) A waste gas produced by cells during respiration, expelled by the lungs.

Cardiac muscle (mięsień sercowy) The specialized muscle of the heart, responsible for pumping blood.

Cardiovascular (sercowo-naczyniowy) Related to the heart and blood vessels, responsible for blood circulation and transport of nutrients.

Carpals (singular: carpal) (kości nadgarstka) The small bones forming the wrist.

Cartilage (chrząstka) A flexible connective tissue found in joints, the nose, ears, and airways.

Cecum (kątnica jelita grubego) The first part of the large intestine, where waste begins to form.

Chest cavity (jama klatki piersiowej) The space within the ribs that contains the heart, lungs, and other vital organs.

Chew (verb) (żuć) To break down food with the teeth in preparation for swallowing.

Chronic condition (przewlekłe schorzenie) A long-term illness or disability that usually lasts for years and often requires continuous management or treatment, like diabetes or asthma. It cannot be fully cured, but symptoms can be controlled.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (przewlekła obturacyjna choroba płuc, POChP) A group of progressive lung diseases, that make breathing difficult by obstructing airflow and causing long-term damage to the lungs. The cause of COPD is usually long-term exposure to irritants (e.g. tobacco smoke, chemical fumes or dusts from the environment or workplace) that damage lungs and airways.  

Chyme (treść pokarmowa) The partially digested food mixture that moves from the stomach to the small intestine.

Circulation (krążenie) The continuous movement of blood through the heart and blood vessels, delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing waste products. Good circulation is essential for health.

Coiled (zwinięty spiralnie) Arranged in a series of loops or spirals, describing, for instance, the structure of the small intestine.

Colon (okrężnica) The main part of the large intestine, where water is absorbed and waste is formed.

Conduit (przewód) A passage or channel through which something flows, such as blood or electrical signals.

Connective tissue (tkanka łączna) Tissue that supports, binds, and connects other tissues and organs.

Contract (verb) (kurczyć się) To shorten or tighten, often referring to muscle action.

Convey (verb) (przenosić) To transport or carry something from one place to another.

Core (rdzeń, korpus) The central part of something. In the human body, it describes the muscles in the abdomen and lower back that support posture, stability, and movement. Core as adjective (kluczowy) describes something that is central, essential, fundamental.

Crucial (kluczowy) Extremely important or essential.

Dendrites (dendryty) Branch-like structures of neurons that receive signals from other cells.

Dermis (DUR-mis) (skóra właściwa) The inner layer of skin, containing nerves, blood vessels, and glands.

Diaphragm (przepona) The muscle beneath the lungs that helps with breathing by contracting and relaxing rhythmically and continually, most of the time involuntarily. It is the major muscle of respiration.

Digestive enzymes (enzymy trawienne) Proteins that break down food into smaller molecules during digestion.

Dome-shaped (w kształcie kopuły) Having a rounded, curved shape, like the diaphragm.

Encompass (verb) (obejmować) To include or contain a range of elements or aspects.

Enhance (verb) (zwiększać, ulepszać) To improve or increase the quality, value, or effectiveness of something. In health, this could involve improving physical abilities, treatment outcomes, or quality of life.

Epidermis (eh-pih-DUR-mis) (naskórek) The outermost layer of skin, providing protection from the environment.

Epididymis (ep-uh-DID-uh-miss) (najądrze) A coiled tube where sperm matures and is stored.

Esophagus (przełyk) The tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach.

Evaporate (parować) To change from liquid or solid state into vapor or gas; often referring to the cooling effect of sweat.

Excrete (verb)(wydalać) To remove waste products from the body.

Expel (verb)(wydalać, wyrzucać) To force something out of the body, such as carbon dioxide during exhalation.

Fallopian tubes (jajowody) Tubes that transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.

Femur (kość udowa) The thigh bone, the longest and strongest bone in the body.

Fertilization (zapłodnienie) The process where a sperm cell and egg cell unite to form a new organism.

Fetus (UK: foetus) (płód) The developing human organism from approximately the 9th week of pregnancy until birth.

Flexibility (elastyczność) The range of motion possible at a joint. Flexibility exercises enhance the ability of a joint to move through its full range of motion.

Fracture (złamanie) A break or crack in a bone, often caused by accidents, falls, or trauma. Fractures can vary in severity, from a simple crack to a complete break that requires surgery.

Gallbladder (pęcherzyk żółciowy) The organ that stores bile produced by the liver until it is needed for digestion.

Gametes (gamety) Reproductive cells (sperm in males, eggs in females) that unite during fertilization.

Gastric juices (soki żołądkowe) The digestive fluids produced by the stomach that help break down food.

Gastrointestinal (żołądkowo-jelitowy, pokarmowy) Related to the digestive system, processing food and absorbing nutrients.

Genitourinary (moczowo-płciowy) Concerning the organs involved in reproduction and urine formation; urogenital.

Grasp (verb) (chwytać) To hold or seize firmly, often with the hand.

Hair follicle (mieszek włosowy) A small sac in the skin from which hair grows.

Higher cognitive functions (wyższe funkcje poznawcze) Complex brain functions like thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Hinge joints (stawy zawiasowe) Joints allowing movement in one direction, like the elbow and knee.

Homeostasis (homeostaza) The process by which a living organism maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions, essential for survival.

Humidify (nawilżać) To to make humid; to add moisture to the air, often done by the respiratory system to keep airways moist;.

Hydrochloric acid (kwas solny) A strong acid produced in the stomach that aids in digestion.

Hypodermis (tkanka podskórna) The deepest layer of skin, primarily consisting of fat and connective tissue.

Implant (verb)(implantować, zagnieżdżać się) To attach or embed, often referring to a fertilized egg attaching to the uterine wall.

Inflammation (zapalenie) The body’s response to injury or infection, causing redness, heat, swelling, and pain in the affected area.

Insulate (izolować) To protect from heat loss or external conditions by providing a barrier.

Integumentary (powłokowy, dotyczący powłok ciała) Pertaining to the skin, hair, nails, and glands, protecting the body from external damage.

Intercostal muscles (mięśnie międzyżebrowe) Muscles between the ribs that assist with breathing by expanding the chest cavity.

Intricately (misternie) In a very detailed or complex manner, involving many interconnected elements or parts.

Involuntary (mimowolny) Actions that occur without conscious control, like breathing or heartbeat.

Joint range of motion (zakres ruchu stawu) The extent of movement a joint can make in different directions. Healthy joints have a full range of motion, allowing for flexible and pain-free movements in daily activities.

Junction (złącze, połączenie) A place or point where two or more things meet or are joined, like the connection between neurons where signals are transmitted.

Keratinize (verb) (rogowacieć) Become changed into a form containing keratin. Keratinization is the process by which cells in the outer skin harden and form a protective barrier.

Kidney (nerka) An organ that filters waste from the blood and produces urine.

Large intestine (jelito grube) The part of the digestive system that absorbs water and forms waste products.

Larynx (krtań) The voice box, containing the vocal cords and involved in breathing and sound production. It is the passageway for air between the pharynx above and the trachea below.

Ligament (więzadło) A fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones, providing stability to joints.

Ligament tear (zerwanie więzadła) A rupture or break in a ligament, which connects bones and helps stabilize joints. Ligament tears often require rest, therapy, or surgery depending on severity.

Liver (wątroba) The organ that processes nutrients, produces bile, and detoxifies harmful substances.

Mammary glands (gruczoły mlekowe) Glands in female mammals that produce milk for feeding offspring.

Menstrual flow (krwawienie miesiączkowe) The monthly discharge of blood and tissue from the uterus in females.

Mobility (ruchomość, mobilność) The ability to move freely and easily, whether referring to walking, bending, or overall physical movement. Impaired mobility can be caused by injury, illness, or aging.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) (stwardnienie rozsiane) A chronic disease where the immune system attacks the protective sheath of nerve fibers, disrupting communication between the brain and body, leading to symptoms like muscle weakness, trouble with coordination and balance, vision problems or thinking and memory problems.

Musculoskeletal (mięśniowo-szkieletowy) Relating to muscles and the skeleton, responsible for body movement and support.

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) (zaburzenia układu mięśniowo-szkieletowego) Conditions that affect muscles, bones, and joints, causing pain, stiffness, or restricted movement. Examples include back pain, arthritis, and tendonitis.

Nasal passages (przewody nosowe) The channels in the nose through which air flows into the respiratory system.

Nervous (nerwowy) Pertaining to the system that controls and coordinates bodily activities through electrical impulses.

Neurons (neurony) Nerve cells that transmit signals throughout the body.

Neurotransmitters (neuroprzekaźniki) Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons at junctions.

Nourish (odżywiać) To provide essential nutrients necessary for growth and health.

Numb (zdrętwiały) Lacking sensation or feeling, often due to cold, injury, or medical intervention. 

Numb pain (tępy, drętwy ból) A type of pain where the affected area feels both painful and numb at the same time. It is often described as a dull ache combined with a reduced ability to feel touch or temperature in that area.

Nutrients (składniki odżywcze) Substances in food that the body needs for energy, growth, and maintaining health.

Opposing (przeciwstawny, przeciwny) – contrary, acting against each other.

Opposing effects (przeciwstawne efekty, reakcje) The contrasting actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, balancing bodily functions.

Orthopedic conditions (schorzenia ortopedyczne) Disorders and injuries affecting the musculoskeletal system, including bones, muscles, joints, and ligaments. Examples include fractures, arthritis, and back pain.

Ovaries (singular: ovary) (jajniki) Female reproductive organs that produce eggs and hormones.

Pancreas (trzustka) The organ located near the stomach that produces digestive enzymes for the intestine and releases insulin into the bloodstream.

Parasympathetic nervous system (przywspółczulny układ nerwowy) The part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and promotes “rest and digest” functions.

Peristaltic contractions (skurcze perystaltyczne) The wave-like muscle movements that propel food through the digestive tract.

Pharynx (gardło) The throat, a passageway that serves both the respiratory and digestive systems by receiving air from the nasal cavity and air, food, and water from the oral cavity. It opens into the larynx and esophagus below.

Pivot joints (stawy obrotowe) Joints that allow rotational movement, such as the neck.

Plasma (osocze) The liquid component of blood that carries cells and nutrients.

Platelets (płytki krwi) Small cell fragments in the blood that help with clotting and wound healing.

Posture (postawa) The position in which someone holds their body when standing, sitting, or lying down. Good posture helps to keep bones and muscles aligned properly, reducing strain and pain.

Prostate gland (gruczoł krokowy, prostata) A gland in males that produces fluid to nourish and transport sperm.

Recover (verb) (wyzdrowieć) To return to a normal state of health, strength, or well-being after an illness, injury, or other physical or mental setback. Recovery may involve therapy or medical treatment.

Rectum (odbytnica) The final section of the large intestine, where waste is stored before being expelled.

Red blood cells (czerwone krwinki) Cells in the blood responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and returning carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation.

Reflex (odruch) An automatic response to a stimulus that does not require conscious thought.

Reproductive organs (narządy rozrodcze) Organs involved in producing offspring, such as testes in males and ovaries in females.

Resorption (resorpcja) The destruction, disappearance, or dissolution of a tissue or part by biochemical activity; the process by which bone or tissue is broken down and absorbed by the body.

Respiratory (oddechowy) Referring to the system responsible for gas exchange, including oxygen intake and carbon dioxide expulsion.

Restore (verb) (przywracać) To bring something back to its original or better condition after damage, loss, or decline. This can refer to physical health, abilities, or even objects and systems.

Rib (żebro) one of a series of curved bones that protect the lungs and heart, connected to the backbone and occurring in pairs on each side of the body

Saliva (ślina) The liquid produced by glands in the mouth that begins the process of digestion.

Sebaceous (oil) glands (sih-BAY-shus) (gruczoły łojowe) Glands in the skin that produce sebum, which lubricates and waterproofs the skin.

Sebum (SEE-bum) (łój) The oily substance produced by sebaceous glands that moisturizes and protects the skin.

Semen (nasienie) The a slightly thick, whitish fluid containing sperm and secretions from the male reproductive glands.

Seminal fluid (płyn nasienny) The fluid produced by the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. It provides a nourishing and protective environment for sperm, allowing them to survive and function optimally.

Seminal vesicles (pęcherzyki nasienne) Glands that produce a fluid that is part of semen.

Sensory input (bodźce sensoryczne) Information received from the environment through the senses, processed by the nervous system.

Sensory receptors (receptory sensoryczne, receptory czuciowe) Specialized cells that detect environmental changes and send signals to the nervous system.

Skeletal muscles (mięśnie szkieletowe) Muscles attached to bones that enable voluntary movement.

Small intestine (jelito cienkie) The long, coiled tube where most digestion and nutrient absorption occurs.

Smooth muscles (mięśnie gładkie) Involuntary muscles found in organs like the stomach and intestines.

Somatic nervous system (somatyczny układ nerwowy) The part of the nervous system that controls voluntary movements of muscles.

Spinal cord (rdzeń kręgowy) The long, thin bundle of nerves within the spine that transmits signals for movement, sensation, and reflexes between the brain and the body.

Sprain (skręcenie) An injury to a ligament caused by overstretching or tearing, usually from twisting or turning joints beyond their normal range, often occurring in the ankle, wrist, or knee.

Subcutaneous (sub-kyoo-TAY-nee-us) (podskórny) Referring to the layer of tissue directly beneath the skin, consisting primarily of fat and connective tissue, providing insulation, energy storage, and cushioning for the body.

Stretch (verb) (rozciągać, rozciągać się) To extend or lengthen muscles and ligaments by holding them in a position that improves flexibility and reduces tension. Stretching is often part of exercise routines or physical therapy.

Stroke (udar) A stroke occurs when blood flow to the brain stops. Within minutes, brain cells begin to die. There are two kinds of stroke. The more common kind, called ischemic stroke, is caused by a blood clot that blocks or plugs a blood vessel in the brain. The other kind, called haemorrhagic stroke, is caused by a blood vessel that breaks and bleeds into the brain. “Mini-strokes,” or transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), occur when the blood supply to the brain is stopped for a short time.

Swallow (połykać) To move food or liquid from the mouth into the esophagus.

Sweat glands (gruczoły potowe) Glands in the skin that produce sweat, helping to regulate body temperature.

Swelling (obrzęk, obrzmienie, opuchlizna) An abnormal enlargement of a part of the body, typically due to injury or inflammation.

Sympathetic nervous system (współczulny układ nerwowy) The part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the “fight or flight” response.

Tendon (ścięgno) A tough, fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone, enabling movement when muscles contract.

Testes (jądra) The male reproductive organs that produce sperm and testosterone.

Tissue (tkanka) A group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function in the body.

Trachea (tchawica) The windpipe, a tube that carries air from the larynx to the bronchi.

Ultrasound (ultradźwięki) A medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of internal body structures or to aid in therapy for soft tissue injuries.

Ureters (moczowody) Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

Urethra (cewka moczowa) The tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body. In the male it conveys semen as well as urine.

Urine (mocz) The liquid waste produced by the kidneys and excreted from the body.

Uterus (macica) The organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus.

Vacuum (próżnia) A space devoid of air, created in the chest cavity during breathing to draw air into the lungs.

Vagina (pochwa) The muscular canal in females that leads from the external genitals to the cervix (szyjka macicy).

Vas deferens (plural: vasa deferentia) (nasieniowód) The tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.

Veins (żyły) Blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

Ventricle (komora) The lower chamber of the heart that pumps blood out to the body or lungs.

Vertebrae (singular: vertebra) (kręgi) The bones that make up the spinal column, providing support and protecting the spinal cord.

Voice box (krtań) See: Larynx

Voluntary (świadomy, intencjonalny) Controlled by the will. Voluntary actions are actions peformed under conscious control, like moving a limb.

Waste products (produkty odpadowe) Substances the body no longer needs, excreted via urine, feces, or sweat.

White blood cells (białe krwinki) Cells in the blood that defend the body against infections and foreign invaders, playing a key role in the immune system.

Windpipe (tchawica) See: Trachea